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NCERT Class 12 History – Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Theme Six: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. 8th–18th Century)

This chapter is about the changes in religious beliefs, devotional practices and religious communities in the Indian subcontinent between approximately the 8th and 18th centuries.

The chapter is not simply about “Bhakti = Hindu” and “Sufi = Muslim.” Its larger theme is how religious traditions interacted with society, caste, gender, local customs, languages, rulers and each other.

The NCERT also stresses that these traditions were dynamic and diverse, and that historians reconstruct them from texts, oral traditions, architecture, sculptures, biographies and other sources.

1. Sources for Studying Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

This is an important starting point. Historians use:

• Poems and hymns of poet-saints
• Oral traditions
• Hagiographies – biographies of saints written by followers
• Sculptures
• Temple architecture
• Mosque architecture
• Sufi texts
• Letters
• Records of rulers

Many poet-saints originally expressed their ideas orally in regional languages, often through music. Their disciples and devotees frequently compiled these compositions only after their deaths.

Therefore, historians face a problem: the traditions could be modified, expanded or altered over generations. Hagiographies are also not necessarily literally accurate, although they reveal how devotees understood their saints.

2. “Great” and “Little” Traditions

The terms “great tradition” and “little tradition” were coined by sociologist Robert Redfield.

“Great” tradition

Practices associated with dominant groups such as:

• Priests
• Rulers
• Sanskritic traditions

“Little” tradition

Local practices followed by peasants and other communities.

The important point is that these two traditions interacted with each other and changed over time.

3. A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, there was increasing visibility of many gods and goddesses in sculptures and texts.

The major deities included:

• Vishnu
• Shiva
• Goddess/Devi

But these deities were represented in many different forms.

4. Integration of Cults

This is a very important NCERT concept. There were two major processes:

Process 1 – Spread of Brahmanical ideas: Puranic texts were composed and preserved in simple Sanskrit verse so that they could become accessible to groups such as women and Shudras, who were generally excluded from Vedic learning.

Process 2 – Incorporation of local beliefs: Brahmanas also accepted and reworked beliefs and practices of different social groups.

Thus: Local traditions ↔ Sanskritic/Puranic traditions interacted continuously.

Example: Jagannatha of Puri

At Puri in Odisha, the principal deity came to be identified by the 12th century as Jagannatha, literally “Lord of the World”, a form of Vishnu.

But the image was very different from conventional representations of Vishnu.

The deity had originally been a local deity, whose wooden image was made by local tribal specialists.

It was subsequently incorporated into the Puranic framework as a form of Vishnu.

5. Goddess Cults

Local goddess worship was also widespread.

Local deities were often incorporated into the Puranic framework by identifying them as wives of major male deities:

• Local goddess → Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu
• Local goddess → Parvati, wife of Shiva

Thus, local religious traditions were absorbed into broader Puranic traditions.

6. Difference and Conflict

Integration did not mean that everyone agreed.

Tantric practices

Tantric forms of worship were widespread in different parts of India. They were significant because:

• They were open to women and men.
• Practitioners often ignored caste and class distinctions within the ritual context.

Tantric ideas influenced Shaivism and Buddhism.

7. Vedic vs Puranic Traditions

There was an important difference between the two.

Vedic pantheon

Important deities included: Agni, Indra, Soma

Puranic traditions

The most prominent deities became: Vishnu, Shiva, Devi

Although the Vedic deities became less prominent, the Vedas continued to be regarded as authoritative. This created tensions between people who valued Vedic traditions and those who followed practices that went beyond traditional sacrifice and mantras.

8. What is Bhakti?

Bhakti means devotion. Devotional worship had already existed for almost a thousand years before the period covered by this chapter.

Bhakti could range from:

Ordinary temple worship → intense emotional devotion → ecstatic/trance-like experience

Singing and chanting devotional compositions were particularly important among Vaishnavas and Shaivas.

9. Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti

This distinction is extremely important for exams.

Saguna Bhakti

Saguna = with attributes/form

Devotion towards a particular deity who has a recognisable form. Examples: Shiva, Vishnu, Vishnu’s avatars, Devi. These were often represented in human-like forms.

Nirguna Bhakti

Nirguna = without attributes/form

Devotion towards an abstract/formless God.

10. Alvars and Nayanars

Some of the earliest Bhakti movements appeared in Tamil Nadu around the 6th century.

Alvars

• Devotees of Vishnu
• “Alvar” literally refers to those immersed in devotion
• Travelled from place to place
• Sang hymns in Tamil

Nayanars

• Devotees of Shiva
• Also travelled and sang Tamil hymns

11. Temples and the Alvars/Nayanars

During their travels, the Alvars and Nayanars identified particular shrines as abodes of their chosen gods.

Later: Sacred shrine → Large temple → Pilgrimage centre

Their devotional songs became part of temple rituals, and images of the saints were also worshipped.

12. Alvars, Nayanars and Caste

This is another major exam topic. Historians suggest that these traditions:

• Challenged caste hierarchy
• Questioned Brahmana dominance
• Attempted, at least in some cases, to reform the caste system

Their followers came from diverse backgrounds: Brahmanas, Artisans, Cultivators, Castes regarded as “untouchable”.

Tamil Veda

The Alvar anthology Nalayira Divyaprabandham was sometimes called the “Tamil Veda”. This asserted that Tamil devotional compositions could have significance comparable to the Sanskrit Vedas.

13. Women Devotees

Women played an important role.

Andal

Andal was a woman Alvar. She considered herself the beloved of Vishnu and expressed her love for Vishnu through poetry. Her compositions continue to be sung.

Karaikkal Ammaiyar

She was a devotee of Shiva. She adopted extreme asceticism and renounced normal social obligations. Her compositions became part of the Nayanar tradition, challenging conventional patriarchal expectations.

14. Compilation of Tamil Devotional Literature

Nalayira Divyaprabandham

By the 10th century, compositions of the 12 Alvars were compiled into Nalayira Divyaprabandham (Meaning: “Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”).

Tevaram

The poems of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were compiled into the Tevaram in the 10th century.

15. Bhakti and the State – Cholas

The Chola rulers (9th–13th centuries) supported Brahmanical and Bhakti traditions. They:

• Gave land grants
• Constructed temples
• Supported Vishnu and Shiva worship
• Built magnificent temples
• Supported Tamil Shaiva hymns
• Organised the Tevaram

Major Shiva temples included: Chidambaram, Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram.

Why did kings support Bhakti?

Because association with popular saints and religious traditions could:

• Strengthen royal legitimacy
• Connect kings with divine authority
• Win support from devotees and local communities

16. Virashaiva/Lingayat Tradition

Basavanna

The 12th century saw a new movement in Karnataka led by Basavanna (1106–68). He was a Brahmana and a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler. His followers were called Virashaivas or Lingayats.

Main Beliefs of Lingayats

They:

• Worshipped Shiva as a linga.
• Challenged caste distinctions.
• Rejected the idea of “pollution” associated with certain groups.
• Questioned the theory of rebirth.
• Supported widow remarriage.
• Supported post-puberty marriage.
• Buried their dead rather than following cremation prescribed by the Dharmashastras.

Their teachings survive in vachanas, literally “sayings”, composed by both women and men in Kannada.

17. Basavanna’s Criticism of Rituals

Basavanna criticised empty ritualism. His argument was essentially: People may worship a stone image but ignore a living person who needs food. Therefore, he questioned the value of rituals when people ignored real human needs.

18. Religious Ferment in North India

North India developed somewhat differently. During the emergence of Rajput states, Brahmanas held important positions and there was little direct challenge to their authority initially.

However, other religious leaders gained popularity: Naths, Jogis, Siddhas. Many came from artisanal groups, including weavers. They:

• Questioned Vedic authority.
• Used languages spoken by ordinary people.
• Developed traditions outside the orthodox Brahmanical framework.

19. Arrival of the Turks and Sufis

The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century weakened many Rajput states and the Brahmanas associated with them. This was accompanied by changes in culture, religion, and political relationships.

The arrival and spread of Sufism became an important part of this changing environment.

20. Islam in the Subcontinent

Islam was not confined to rulers. It spread among peasants, artisans, warriors, and merchants.

Muslims accepted, in principle, the Five Pillars of Islam:

• Shahada – declaration of faith
• Namaz/Salat – five daily prayers
• Zakat – almsgiving
• Sawm – fasting during Ramzan
• Hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca

21. Islam + Local Traditions

A very important idea in the chapter is that Islam in India developed with local variations.

Khojahs

The Khojahs, associated with the Ismaili Shi’a tradition, developed Ginan (devotional poems in languages such as Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi, Gujarati).

Malabar Muslims

Arab Muslim traders settled on the Malabar coast and adopted Malayalam, local customs, matriliny, and matrilocal residence.

22. Mosque Architecture

Mosques had certain universal Islamic features, such as orientation towards Mecca and the:

• Mihrab – prayer niche
• Minbar – pulpit

But local architecture influenced roof styles, building materials, and decorative forms.

Thus: Universal Islamic tradition + Local architectural traditions = Indian mosque architecture

23. Growth of Sufism

Sufism developed in the early centuries of Islam. Sufis turned towards asceticism, mysticism, intense devotion, and love of God. They criticised growing materialism, dogmatic religious interpretations, and excessively scholastic approaches. They sought salvation through personal experience of God and by following the example of Prophet Muhammad.

Sufism = Tasawwuf

The English term Sufism was coined in the 19th century. The term used in Islamic texts is tasawwuf. Its origin has been explained in different ways, including:

• suf → wool
• safa → purity
• suffa → platform near the Prophet’s mosque

24. Khanqah and Silsila

Khanqah

A khanqah was a hospice/community centre associated with Sufis. It was controlled by a spiritual master known as Shaikh, Pir, or Murshid. He accepted disciples (murids), appointed a successor (khalifa), and established rules for spiritual conduct.

Silsila

Silsila = chain. It represented the spiritual chain linking:

Master → Disciple → Master → Disciple → … → Prophet Muhammad

Spiritual power and blessings were believed to pass through this chain.

25. Dargah, Ziyarat and Urs

After a Sufi saint died: Tomb → Dargah → Centre of devotion

Ziyarat: Pilgrimage to the tomb of a Sufi saint.

Urs: The saint’s death anniversary, understood as the symbolic union of the saint’s soul with God.

Devotees visited shrines to seek barakat, or spiritual blessings.

26. Wali

A wali means a “friend of God.” Sufis who were believed to be especially close to Allah could be regarded as auliya. People believed they possessed:

Barakat → divine grace/blessing

and could perform: Karamat → miracles

27. Ba-Shari’a and Be-Shari’a Sufis

Ba-Shari’a: Sufis who followed the shari’a.

Be-Shari’a: Some radical mystics rejected conventional rituals, practised extreme asceticism, took to mendicancy, sometimes observed celibacy, and deliberately disregarded the shari’a.

Examples included: Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris.

28. Chishtis in the Subcontinent

Among Sufi groups that migrated to India in the late 12th century, the Chishtis became particularly influential because they adapted to the local environment and adopted elements of Indian devotional traditions.

29. Major Chishti Saints

30. Life in a Chishti Khanqah

The khanqah was an important centre of social life. For example, Nizamuddin Auliya’s hospice at Ghiyaspur near Delhi had rooms, a large hall called jama’at khana, courtyard, veranda, and boundary wall.

People from different backgrounds came there.

31. Langar

The Chishti khanqah had an open kitchen called Langar, supported by futuh (unasked-for charity).

People from different backgrounds visited: soldiers, slaves, singers, merchants, poets, travellers, rich, poor, Hindu jogis, Qalandars.

32. Ziyarat and Qawwali

Pilgrimage to Sufi tombs was called ziyarat. People sought the saint’s barakat. At Sufi shrines, music and mystical chanting could be used to create a state of spiritual ecstasy.

Zikr: Remembering/reciting the Divine Names.

Sama’: Listening to or participating in mystical music. Sama’ became particularly important among the Chishtis.

33. Amir Khusrau and Qawwali

Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) was a poet, musician, and disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. He introduced the qaul into Chishti sama’.

Qaul: An Arabic word meaning “saying”. It was a hymn sung at the opening or closing of a qawwali.

Qawwali could contain poetry in Persian, Hindavi, Urdu, or mixtures of these languages.

34. Sufis and Local Languages

Chishtis did not only use Persian. In Delhi they used Hindavi, the language of ordinary people. Other Sufis also used regional languages.

For example: Baba Farid’s local-language verses were incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib. Malik Muhammad Jayasi composed Padmavat, where human love represented the soul’s journey towards divine love.

35. Sufis and the State

This is a very important analytical topic. Chishtis emphasised austerity and distance from political power, but they were not completely isolated from rulers. They accepted unsolicited donations and received grants for food and clothing.

Sultans established auqaf (charitable endowments) and granted tax-free land called inam.

Why did rulers want links with Sufis? Because Sufis were popular among ordinary people. Kings wanted public support, moral legitimacy, and association with respected spiritual figures.

36. But Sufis and Rulers Could Also Conflict

The relationship was not always peaceful. Both political and religious authorities could demand demonstrations of authority, such as prostration, kissing feet, or grand titles.

Nizamuddin Auliya’s disciples called him: Sultan-ul-mashaikh = Sultan among Shaikhs.

37. Akbar and Ajmer

The shrine of Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer became extremely important. Akbar visited the shrine 14 times, seeking blessings for military conquests, fulfilment of vows, and the birth of sons.

In 1568, he donated a huge degh (cauldron) for cooking food for pilgrims and also constructed a mosque within the dargah complex.

38. Kabir

Now we come to one of the most important Bhakti figures. Kabir lived around the 14th–15th centuries. He is one of the best examples of a nirguna poet-saint.

Historians face difficulties reconstructing his life because his compositions survive in several traditions and many were compiled long after his death.

39. Kabir’s Teachings

Kabir criticised religious divisions, empty rituals, social institutions, sectarian conflict, idol worship, and blind religious practices.

His ideas drew from multiple traditions:

• Islamic vocabulary: Allah, Khuda, Hazrat, Pir
• Vedantic vocabulary: Brahman, Atman, Nirakar, Alakh
• Yogic vocabulary: Shabda, Shunya

Central idea: There is one Ultimate Reality, although people use different names for it.

40. Kabir’s Poetry

Kabir’s verses survive in: Kabir Bijak, Kabir Granthavali, Adi Granth Sahib.

Some were written in Sant Bhasha (the special language associated with nirguna poets). He also used Ulatbansi (“upside-down sayings” in which normal meanings are reversed to express mystical experiences).

41. Was Kabir Hindu or Muslim?

NCERT deliberately treats this as a historical problem, rather than giving an unquestioned answer. Later hagiographies gave different accounts of Kabir’s background.

Some Vaishnava traditions claimed he was born Hindu, raised by a Muslim family of weavers/julahas, and may have been initiated into Bhakti by Ramananda. But the connection between Kabir and Ramananda cannot simply be accepted as historical fact.

42. Baba Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak (1469–1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in Nankana Sahib, in Punjab. He studied Persian, trained as an accountant, spent time with Sufis and Bhaktas, and travelled widely.

His teachings represented a form of nirguna Bhakti.

43. Teachings of Guru Nanak

Guru Nanak rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities, and external religious practices. He taught devotion to the formless Absolute, or rab.

His simple method: Remember and repeat God’s Name.

His hymns were called Shabad, composed in Punjabi and sung in different ragas. His companion Mardana played the rabab.

44. Guru Nanak and the Sikh Community

Guru Nanak organised his followers into a community, established congregational worship called sangat, and appointed Angad as his successor.

After Guru Nanak’s death, his followers gradually developed practices distinguishing themselves from both Hindus and Muslims. Guru Arjan later compiled the hymns of Guru Nanak, his successors, and poets like Kabir, Baba Farid, and Ravidas into the Adi Granth Sahib.

45. Guru Granth Sahib and Khalsa

Later, Guru Gobind Singh added the compositions of Guru Tegh Bahadur, and the scripture became known as the Guru Granth Sahib. He also founded the Khalsa Panth.

The five symbols were: Uncut hair, Dagger, Pair of shorts, Comb, Steel bangle.

46. Mirabai

Mirabai lived around the 15th–16th centuries and is one of the best-known women poets of the Bhakti tradition. According to traditions, she was a Rajput princess from Merta married into the Sisodia family of Mewar.

She rejected conventional roles, regarded Krishna as her beloved, and eventually lived as a wandering saint expressing intense devotion.

47. Mirabai and Caste

Some traditions identify Raidas, a leather worker, as Mirabai’s preceptor, indicating a challenge to caste norms.

She rejected palace comforts and became associated with the life of a renouncer. Her songs continued to inspire people, particularly women and people regarded as “low caste” in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

48. Shankaradeva

The chapter also discusses Shankaradeva, an important Vaishnava teacher in Assam. His teachings were known as Bhagavati Dharma, based on the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana.

He emphasised absolute surrender to Vishnu and Naam kirtan (recitation of God’s name in congregations).

He encouraged satra (monasteries) and naam ghar (prayer halls). His major composition was Kirtana-ghosha.

49. Reconstructing Religious Histories

The final section returns to the historian’s problem. Historians use material sources (sculpture, architecture) and textual sources (devotional poems, vachanas, Sufi manuals, letters, biographies, imperial orders).

Different texts require different skills because they were written in different languages, styles, and genres.

50. Four Important Sufi Sources

This is a very useful factual section.

1. Treatises / Manuals

Explain Sufi thought and practices. Example: Kashf-ul-Mahjub by Ali bin Usman Hujwiri.

2. Malfuzat

Recorded conversations of Sufi saints. Example: Fawa’id-al-Fu’ad containing conversations of Nizamuddin Auliya.

3. Maktubat

Collections of letters written by Sufi masters. Example: Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.

4. Tazkiras

Biographical accounts of saints. Example: Siyar-ul-Auliya by Mir Khwurd Kirmani.

The Chapter in One Flow

Think of the entire chapter like this:

Local religious traditions
⬇️
Integration with Puranic traditions
⬇️
Bhakti traditions
⬇️
Alvars + Nayanars
⬇️
Caste and gender challenges
⬇️
Virashaiva/Lingayat movement
⬇️
Naths, Jogis and Siddhas
⬇️
Arrival and spread of Islam
⬇️
Sufi traditions
⬇️
Khanqah + Silsila + Dargah
⬇️
Chishti tradition
⬇️
Ziyarat + Sama + Qawwali
⬇️
Kabir + Guru Nanak + Mirabai
⬇️
Religious traditions become diverse and interconnected
⬇️
Historians reconstruct these traditions using multiple sources

Most Important Personalities to Remember

The chapter’s timeline places these teachers broadly between the 6th and 17th centuries.

High-Value Exam Comparisons

Saguna vs Nirguna

Ba-Shari’a vs Be-Shari’a

Khanqah vs Dargah

Khanqah → living Sufi community/hospice

Dargah → shrine/tomb of a deceased Sufi saint

Zikr vs Sama’

Zikr → remembrance/recitation of God’s names

Sama’ → listening to mystical music/chanting to evoke spiritual experience

Bhakti vs Sufi

But don’t treat them as completely separate worlds. The chapter repeatedly shows interaction between local traditions, Bhakti traditions and Sufi practices.

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