Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 1 Notes — Part 2

Table of Contents

• 4. Tracking Social Differences
• – 4.1 Burials
• – 4.2 Looking for Social Differences & 5. Studying Artefacts
• 6. Finding Out About Craft Production
• – 6.1 Materials Used & 6.2 Bead Making
• – 6.3 Faience, 6.4 Shell Working & 6.5 Metal Working
• 7. Procuring Raw Materials
• 8. Trade Networks

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4. Tracking Social Differences (Pages 8–10)

Introduction

One of the most challenging aspects of studying the Harappan Civilisation is understanding its social organisation. Unlike later civilizations, the Harappans have left no deciphered written records explaining their social structure. Therefore, archaeologists rely on houses, burials, artefacts and settlement patterns to reconstruct social differences.

Archaeological evidence suggests that while the Harappan society displayed signs of social differentiation, the differences were probably less pronounced than those seen in later historical periods.

How do Archaeologists Identify Social Differences? (Page 8)

Archaeologists mainly use two kinds of evidence:

(Page 8)

4.1 Burials (Pages 8–9)

Importance of Burials

Burials help archaeologists understand:

• Religious beliefs
• Social hierarchy
• Family customs
• Concepts of life after death

Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia, Harappan burials were relatively simple.

Burial Practices

Most burials contained a single skeleton, pottery, personal ornaments, shell objects, and beads. Some graves also contained copper mirrors, stone blades, and bangles. (Page 9)

Position of Skeletons

Most skeletons were buried extended, lying on the back, with the head usually pointed towards the north. This pattern has been observed in several Harappan cemeteries.

Grave Goods

Objects buried with the dead included several specific material components:

• Pottery: Bowls, pots, and dishes.
• Jewellery: Shell bangles, bead necklaces, and stone ornaments.
• Personal Articles: Copper mirrors and stone blades.

Archaeologists believe these may have been intended for use in the afterlife. (Page 9)

Cemetery R-37 (Harappa)

One of the best-known Harappan cemeteries is Cemetery R-37, located at Harappa. Important findings include extended burials, pottery, jewellery, copper mirrors, and stone tools. The cemetery has provided valuable evidence regarding Harappan funerary practices. (Page 9)

What Do Burials Tell Us?

Burials suggest a foundational belief in life after death, respect for the deceased, some clear social differentiation, and limited economic inequality compared with ancient Egypt.

However, there is no evidence of gigantic royal tombs similar to Egyptian pyramids. This suggests that Harappan rulers, if any, did not display power through monumental burials.

4.2 Looking for Social Differences & 5. Studying Artefacts (Pages 9–10)

Archaeologists carefully compare Rich Burials (containing numerous ornaments, precious stones, and copper objects) with Ordinary Burials (containing few pottery vessels and simple ornaments). However, systemic differences are generally not very large, indicating relatively moderate structural inequality. (Page 9)

Two Categories of Artefacts

Archaeologists divide functional remains into two core structural categories:

(Page 10)

Why are Luxury Objects Important?

Luxury objects cleanly indicate wealth, highly skilled craftsmanship, extensive long-distance trade, and localized social prestige.

However, many luxury objects have also been found in ordinary settlements. This strongly suggests that specialized craft products may have been widely distributed across the culture rather than hoarded strictly by elite classes.

6. Finding Out About Craft Production (Pages 10–13)

Importance of Craft Production

Craft production was one of the most advanced sectors of the Harappan economy. Specialized craftsmen systematically produced beads, jewellery, pottery, shell objects, stone tools, metal objects, and complex seals. Large-scale craft production directly supported inter-regional trade, the urban economy, and wider social development. (Page 10)

6.1 Materials Used & 6.2 Bead Making (Page 11)

Craftsmen worked with a vast palette of raw materials collected from diverse regions:

• Stones: Carnelian, jasper, agate, chalcedony, steatite, and lapis lazuli.
• Metals: Copper, bronze, gold, silver, and lead.
• Organic Materials: Shell, ivory, bone, and wood.

(Page 10–11)

Bead Making Manufacturing Process

Bead-making was one of the finest Harappan industries, utilizing stones like carnelian, agate, and steatite alongside structural metals. The industrial process followed a highly structured series of development steps:

Chanhudaro

Chanhudaro was an exceptionally important, highly specialized craft-production centre. Important industrial discoveries include bead-making workshops, specialized drills, leftover stone flakes, finished/half-finished beads, and large smelting furnaces. Unlike administrative centers like Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro appears to have focused almost exclusively on large-scale urban manufacturing. (Page 11)

Drilling Technology

One of the greatest achievements of Harappan craftsmen was drilling extremely small holes through hard semi-precious stones. Special heavy-duty drills were manufactured using micro-grained chert and other exceptionally hard stones. Even modern mechanical craftsmen deeply admire Harappan bead-making techniques. (Page 11)

6.3 Faience, 6.4 Shell Working & 6.5 Metal Working (Pages 11–12)

6.3 Faience

Faience is an artificially produced material. It was manufactured by grinding quartz sand, mixing it with an organic gum binder, and firing the mixture at high temperatures. The resulting product had a shiny, glassy appearance, typically colored blue or green.

Objects made from Faience: Bangles, beads, earrings, small luxury vessels, and delicate figurines. Faience was one of the hallmark luxury items of the civilization. (Page 11)

6.4 Shell Working

Raw marine shells were systematically harvested along coastal lines, mainly from the Gujarat coast and the Makran coast. Manufactured objects included heavy bangles, decorative items, functional spoons, ladles, and furniture inlays. Major dedicated shell-working centers included Nageshwar and Balakot, where massive heaps of discarded shell waste prove intensive localized manufacturing. (Page 12)

6.5 Metal Working

Harappans possessed advanced metallurgical knowledge. Metals such as copper, bronze, gold, silver, and lead were regularly worked to shape essential items: tools, weapons, mirrors, ornaments, needles, and fish hooks. Bronze alloy was consistently produced by intentionally blending Copper + Tin.

7. Procuring Raw Materials (Pages 12–13)

Since raw material resources were unevenly distributed across South Asia, the Harappans established structured regional procurement networks to keep urban workshops running.

Core Material Mineral Sources

(Page 12–13)

Procurement Methods

Raw materials were systematically acquired through direct inter-regional trade, trade barter, localized collection, and state-organized mining expeditions into distant territories.

8. Trade Networks (Pages 13–15)

Internal Trade

Harappan urban cities tightly exchanged agricultural produce, raw minerals, and processed craft goods. These commercial networks dynamically linked small agrarian farming villages, centralized regional production centers, core inland cities, and coastal ports.

External Trade

Abundant archaeological evidence points to intensive long-distance maritime and overland trade with several contemporary ancient civilizations:

• Mesopotamia: Cuneiform records refer to the Harappan region as Meluhha. Mesopotamian texts explicitly mention Meluhhan merchants, international trade ships, and specialized translation interpreters residing in Mesopotamia. (Page 13)
• Oman: Trade connections are verified by the discovery of distinct Omani copper items, large black-coated Harappan jars, and specific trade artefacts.
• Bahrain (Dilmun): Ancient Bahrain, termed Dilmun in texts, acted as a crucial intermediate trading center and maritime transit port directly linking Mesopotamia with the distant Harappan Civilisation. (Page 13–14)

Transport Logistics

Bulk and luxury goods were transported using a balanced mix of heavy land vehicles and maritime routes:

• Bullock Carts: Terracotta models prove the widespread use of two-wheeled cargo carts equipped with heavy solid wheels.
• River Transport: Flat-bottomed cargo boats navigated smoothly down the primary Indus River channel and its connecting tributaries.
• Sea Routes: Major engineered port infrastructure at sites like Lothal and coastal outposts like Sutkagendor facilitated deep-sea overseas voyages. (Page 15)

Importance of Trade

International and domestic commerce directly generated total urban prosperity, drove hyper-specialized craft production, allowed rapid cross-cultural exchange, and provided systemic economic integration. The Harappan Civilisation maintained one of the earliest and most complex long-distance trade networks in the ancient world.

End of Part 2

Part 3 will cover: Seals, Script and Standardised Weights, Ancient Authority (Who Ruled the Harappans?), The Great Bath and Public Architecture (interpretations), Decline of the Harappan Civilisation, Discovery of the Harappan Civilisation, Cunningham, Daya Ram Sahni, Rakhal Das Banerji, John Marshall and Wheeler, Archaeological Interpretation, Important Topics, Important Terms, 10+ Very Short Questions, 10+ Short Questions, 8+ Long Questions, 5 FAQs, 40+ Quick Revision Points, and Complete Chapter Conclusion. Click the next text to read part 3, NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 1 Notes | Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation Part 3

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