9. Seals, Script and Standardised Weights (Pages 15–17)

Introduction

One of the most remarkable achievements of the Harappan Civilisation was the development of a highly standardized system of seals, writing and weights. These played a vital role in administration, trade, craft production and long-distance commerce. Although the Harappan script remains undeciphered, archaeologists have learned much from these objects.

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Harappan Seals

(Page 15)

Thousands of seals have been discovered from Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Lothal and several other Harappan sites.

Materials Used

Most seals were made from:

• Steatite (soapstone)
• Faience (rarely)
• Copper (few examples)
• Terracotta (few examples)

The steatite seals were:

• Carefully carved
• Heated to increase hardness
• Polished

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Features of Harappan Seals

A typical Harappan seal contains:

• An animal figure
• Harappan script
• Square or rectangular shape
• Boss (projection) on the reverse side
• Hole for suspension

Most seals measure about:

2–4 cm.

(Page 15)

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Animals Depicted on Seals

Common animals include:

• Unicorn (most common)
• Humped bull (Zebu)
• Elephant
• Rhinoceros
• Tiger
• Buffalo
• Goat
• Composite animals

The Unicorn

The unicorn is the most frequently represented animal.

However,

No evidence suggests that it was a real animal.

It may have had:

• Religious significance
• Symbolic meaning
• Clan identity

(Page 15)

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Purpose of Seals

Archaeologists believe seals were used for:

• Identifying ownership
• Commercial transactions
• Trade administration
• Authenticating goods
• Official purposes

Many clay sealings bearing seal impressions have been found on bundles and containers.

This suggests that goods were sealed before transportation.

(Page 16)

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Harappan Script (Pages 15–16)

Discovery

More than 4,000 inscriptions have been discovered.

They appear on:

• Seals
• Pottery
• Copper tools
• Jewellery
• Bone objects
• Ivory
• Stone tablets

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Characteristics

The script is:

• Pictographic
• Short
• Usually contains 5–10 symbols
• Maximum known inscription has about 26 signs.

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Direction of Writing

Most inscriptions were written:

Right to left.

This has been determined from overlapping signs.

(Page 16)

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Has the Script Been Deciphered?

No.

Despite many attempts,

The Harappan script remains undeciphered.

Reasons include:

• No bilingual inscription.
• Very short texts.
• Unknown language.

This limits our understanding of Harappan administration, religion and politics.

(Page 16)

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Standardised Weights (Page 16)

The Harappans developed one of the earliest standardized systems of weights.

Material

Weights were generally made from:

• Chert

Shape

Mostly:

• Cubical

Weight System

The weights followed a fixed binary progression.

Examples include:

• 1
• 2
• 4
• 8
• 16
• 32
• 64

Higher weights followed decimal multiples.

This remarkable standardization across hundreds of settlements suggests:

• Strong commercial organization.
• Uniform administration.
• Efficient taxation or trade regulation.

(Page 16)

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10. Ancient Authority (Pages 17–19)

Who Ruled the Harappan Civilisation?

One of the biggest mysteries of the Harappan Civilisation concerns political authority.

Unlike Egypt or Mesopotamia,

No evidence has been found for:

• Kings
• Palaces
• Royal tombs
• Royal inscriptions

Therefore,

Historians continue to debate how the civilisation was governed.

(Page 17)

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Evidence Available

Archaeologists rely upon:

• Urban planning
• Standardized bricks
• Standardized weights
• Uniform seals
• Public buildings
• Drainage systems

These indicate that some form of central authority probably existed.

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Different Interpretations

(Page 18)

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Why No Kings?

Unlike Egypt,

Harappans left behind:

No:

• Royal statues.
• Huge palaces.
• Royal tombs.
• Military monuments.

This suggests that power may have been exercised differently.

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Public Architecture

(Page 18)

Important public buildings include:

• Great Bath
• Granary (Warehouse)
• Assembly Hall
• Reservoirs
• Platforms

These required:

• Skilled planning.
• Organized labour.
• Resource management.

This again indicates some administrative authority.

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Source 5: The End of Mohenjodaro?

(Page 18)

Earlier archaeologists believed:

Mohenjodaro was destroyed by invasion.

Later excavations showed:

There is no convincing archaeological evidence supporting a sudden massacre.

Modern scholars reject the invasion theory.

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11. The End of the Civilisation (Pages 18–19)

Decline of Urban Centres

Around:

1900 BCE

major urban centres declined.

Cities became:

• Smaller.
• Less organized.
• Less prosperous.

The Late Harappan Phase continued until approximately:

1300 BCE.

(Page 18)

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Major Changes

Archaeologists observed:

• Decline in long-distance trade.
• Reduction in craft specialization.
• Poor-quality construction.
• Abandonment of cities.
• Decrease in standardized weights and seals.

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Possible Reasons

The NCERT emphasizes that there was no single cause.

Several factors may have contributed.

(Page 19)

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Earlier Theory: Aryan Invasion

Mortimer Wheeler once suggested:

Aryan invaders destroyed the Harappans.

Modern archaeology rejects this theory because:

• No evidence of large-scale warfare.
• Skeletons belong to different periods.
• No signs of massive destruction.

(Page 19)

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12. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation (Pages 19–24)

Alexander Cunningham

(Page 20)

• First Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• Visited Harappa in the 1870s.
• Collected a Harappan seal.
• Did not recognize the site’s true antiquity.

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Daya Ram Sahni

(Page 20)

• Conducted excavations at Harappa in 1921.
• First major excavation of a Harappan city.

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Rakhal Das Banerji

(Page 20)

• Excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922.
• Confirmed existence of another major urban site.

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John Marshall

(Page 20)

Director-General of ASI.

His contribution:

• Announced discovery of the Harappan Civilisation in 1924.
• Initiated large-scale excavations.
• Encouraged scientific archaeology.

Importance of Marshall’s Work

The discovery completely changed Indian history.

It proved that:

India possessed one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations.

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Mortimer Wheeler

(Page 22)

Contributions:

• Introduced modern excavation methods.
• Emphasized stratigraphy.
• Improved recording techniques.

He initially proposed:

Aryan invasion theory.

This interpretation is no longer accepted.

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Archaeological Methods

(Page 21–24)

Archaeologists reconstruct Harappan history through:

• Excavations
• Stratigraphy
• Pottery analysis
• Carbon dating
• Botanical remains
• Animal bones
• Human skeletons
• Scientific laboratory analysis

Archaeobotany

Studies:

• Seeds
• Charred grains
• Plant remains

Helps reconstruct:

• Agriculture
• Diet
• Environment

Zooarchaeology

Studies:

• Animal bones

Helps understand:

• Domestication
• Hunting
• Food habits

Archaeogenetics

Modern DNA studies help reconstruct:

• Population history
• Human migration
• Biological relationships

The chapter notes that this is an emerging field requiring careful interpretation.

(Page 24)

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Important Topics

The following topics are frequently asked in UPSC, SSC, PSC, Railway, CUET and Board examinations.

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Important Terms / Concepts

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Important Questions

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Why is the civilisation called the Harappan Civilisation?
2. Which phase is known as the Mature Harappan Phase?
3. Name the largest Harappan site in India.
4. What was Meluhha?
5. Which material was commonly used for Harappan seals?
6. Which animal appears most frequently on Harappan seals?
7. Has the Harappan script been deciphered?
8. What was Cemetery R-37?
9. Who discovered Harappa in 1921?
10. Who excavated Mohenjodaro?
11. Who announced the discovery of the Harappan Civilisation in 1924?
12. What is archaeobotany?

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the geographical extent of the Harappan Civilisation.
2. Describe Harappan subsistence strategies.
3. Explain the importance of Kalibangan’s ploughed field.
4. Describe the town planning of Mohenjodaro.
5. Explain the Harappan drainage system.
6. Discuss Harappan burial practices.
7. Explain Harappan craft production.
8. Describe Harappan trade with Mesopotamia.
9. Explain the importance of Harappan seals.
10. Why is the Harappan script still undeciphered?

Long Answer Questions

1. Discuss the main features of the Harappan Civilisation.
2. Explain the urban planning of Mohenjodaro.
3. Examine Harappan agriculture and subsistence strategies.
4. Discuss Harappan craft production and trade.
5. Explain different theories regarding Harappan political authority.
6. Discuss the decline of the Harappan Civilisation.
7. Explain how archaeologists reconstruct the history of the Harappan Civilisation.
8. Evaluate the contribution of Alexander Cunningham, Daya Ram Sahni, Rakhal Das Banerji, John Marshall and Mortimer Wheeler to Harappan archaeology.

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FAQs

These FAQs help students revise the chapter quickly.

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Quick Revision Summary

These quick revision notes help in last-minute preparation.

• Harappa was the first discovered site.
• Mature Harappan Phase lasted from 2600–1900 BCE.
• Harappan civilisation covered nearly one million square kilometres.
• Mohenjodaro had a Citadel and Lower Town.
• Standard brick ratio was 4:2:1.
• Covered drainage was a major urban feature.
• Great Bath was probably used for rituals.
• Kalibangan provides evidence of ploughed fields.
• Dholavira had sophisticated reservoirs.
• Chanhudaro specialised in bead making.
• Carnelian was widely used for beads.
• Faience was an artificial glazed material.
• Shell-working centres included Nageshwar and Balakot.
• Copper came mainly from Khetri.
• Lapis Lazuli came from Afghanistan.
• Mesopotamians called the Harappan region Meluhha.
• Dilmun (Bahrain) acted as a trading centre.
• The unicorn is the most common seal motif.
• Harappan script remains undeciphered.
• Standardised cubical chert weights were used.
• No clear evidence of kings or royal palaces has been found.
• Political authority remains debated.
• Around 1900 BCE, urban centres declined.
• Aryan invasion theory is no longer accepted.
• Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa in the 1870s.
• Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921.
• Rakhal Das Banerji excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922.
• John Marshall announced the civilisation in 1924.
• Mortimer Wheeler introduced modern excavation methods.
• Archaeobotany studies plant remains.
• Zooarchaeology studies animal bones.
• Archaeogenetics studies ancient DNA.
• Archaeology reconstructs history through material evidence.
• Harappan Civilisation remains one of the greatest Bronze Age civilisations.