1. What is biodiversity? Explain it in simple terms. (Pg. 2) Page 115
2. Name and briefly explain the three levels at which biodiversity can be discussed. (Pg. 2-3) Page 115-116
3. What is Species Diversity and how can it be measured? (Pg. 3) Page 116
4. List the three main roles (ecological, economic, and scientific) played by biodiversity. (Pg. 3-4) Page 116-117
5. Why is the scientific role of biodiversity important? (Pg. 4) Page 117
6. What are the major causes for the loss of biodiversity as mentioned in the chapter? (Pg. 4) Page 117
7. What are the steps suggested by the world conservation strategy for biodiversity conservation? (List key points). (Pg. 5) Page 118
8. What are biodiversity hotspots? How are they defined? (Pg. 5) Page 118

Biodiversity is consistently richer in which regions? (Pg. 2)

What does Genetic Diversity refer to? (Pg. 2)

Areas rich in species diversity are called: (Pg. 3)

Which role of biodiversity includes the concept of ‘crop diversity’ or agro-biodiversity? (Pg. 3)

According to the chapter, what is our ethical responsibility towards other species? (Pg. 4)

Species which are not natural inhabitants but are introduced into a local habitat are called: (Pg. 4)

The Convention on Biodiversity was signed at the Earth Summit in 1992 in: (Pg. 5)

(Exercise) Conservation of biodiversity is important for: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) Threatened species are those which: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) National parks and sanctuaries are established for the purpose of: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) Biodiversity is richer in: (Pg. 7)

(Exercise) In which country was the ‘Earth Summit’ held? (Pg. 7)

Biodiversity is a combination of two words: Bio (life) and ______ (variety). (Pg. 2) Page 115

Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called ______. (Pg. 2) Page 115

The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats constitute ______ diversity. (Pg. 3) Page 116

Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, and help cycle water and nutrients, fulfilling the ______ role of biodiversity. (Pg. 3) Page 116

The International Union for Conservation of Nature publishes the ______ List of threatened species. (Pg. 4) Page 117

The IUCN classifies threatened species into three categories: Endangered, Vulnerable, and ______ Species. (Pg. 4) Page 117

Countries situated in tropical regions that possess a large number of the world’s species are called ______ centres. (Pg. 5) Page 118

(Exercise) The different levels of biodiversity are genetic, species, and ______. (Pg. 7) Page 120

1. What are the three types of movements in ocean water? Briefly define each. (Pg. 1) Page 108
2. Explain how energy, not the water itself, moves across the ocean surface in the form of waves. (Pg. 1) Page 108
3. Define the following characteristics of a wave: crest, trough, wavelength, and wave period. (Pg. 2) Page 109
4. What causes tides? Explain the role of gravitational pull and centrifugal force in creating the two major tidal bulges. (Pg. 2) Page 109
5. Differentiate between Spring Tides and Neap Tides based on the positions of the sun, moon, and earth. (Pg. 3) Page 110
6. List the various importance of tides. (Pg. 3-4) Page 110-111
7. How do differences in water density (salinity and temperature) affect the vertical mobility of ocean currents? (Pg. 4) Page 111
8. How do ocean currents influence the climate of coastal regions? Provide examples based on latitude. (Pg. 5) Page 112

Which movement of ocean water refers to the continuous flow of a huge amount of water in a definite direction? (Pg. 1)

What is the primary source of energy for waves? (Pg. 1)

The horizontal distance between two successive wave crests is called: (Pg. 2)

The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between: (Pg. 2)

Which bay is famous for having the highest tides in the world? (Pg. 3)

Spring tides occur: (Pg. 3)

What are the primary forces that initiate the movement of ocean currents? (Pg. 4)

Which type of current brings cold water into warm water areas and is usually found on the west coast of continents in low/middle latitudes? (Pg. 4)

The mixing zones of warm and cold currents are favourable for the growth of planktons because they help to: (Pg. 5)

(Exercise) Upward and downward movement of ocean water is known as the: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) Spring tides are caused: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) The distance between earth and moon is minimum when the moon is in: (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) The earth reaches its perihelion in: (Pg. 6)

The vertical motion of ocean water that refers to the rise and fall of sea level is called ______. (Pg. 1) Page 108

When a wave approaches the beach, it slows down due to friction with the ______. (Pg. 1) Page 108

Wave ______ is one-half of the wave height. (Pg. 2) Page 109

The study of tides is complex due to great variations in frequency, magnitude, and ______. (Pg. 2) Page 109

Tides with two high and two low tides each day, with successive highs/lows of similar height, are called ______ tides. (Pg. 3) Page 110

The time between low tide and high tide, when the water level is rising, is called the ______. (Pg. 3) Page 110

Large circular currents in ocean basins caused by the accumulation of water and the Coriolis force are called ______. (Pg. 4) Page 111

The speed of a current is referred to as its ______. (Pg. 4) Page 111

The major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and the ______ force. (Pg. 5) Page 112

(Exercise) Waves in the ocean get their energy from ______. (Pg. 6) Page 113

1. What is the hydrological cycle? Describe its significance. (Pg. 2) Page 100
2. What are the four major divisions of the ocean floors? (Pg. 3) Page 101
3. Why are continental shelves significant? What covers them? (Pg. 3) Page 101
4. What are oceanic deeps or trenches? Why are they significant in the study of plate movements? (Pg. 4) Page 102
5. List the factors affecting the temperature distribution of ocean water. (Pg. 5) Page 103
6. Describe the three-layer temperature structure of oceans in middle and low latitudes. (Pg. 5-6) Page 103-104
7. What is salinity? How is it expressed? (Pg. 6) Page 104

The hydrological cycle describes the movement of water: (Pg. 2)

Which is the shallowest part of the ocean with an average gradient of 1° or less? (Pg. 3)

The continental slope connects the: (Pg. 4)

Which ocean has the highest number of explored deeps? (Pg. 4)

What is a flat-topped seamount called? (Pg. 5)

Which factor causes upwelling of cold water, lowering coastal temperatures? (Pg. 5)

Why do oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher temperatures than those in the southern hemisphere? (Pg. 6)

Which of the following factors does NOT directly affect the surface salinity of oceans? (Pg. 6)

(Exercise) Identify the element which is not a part of the hydrological cycle: (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) The average depth of the continental slope varies between: (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) Which one is NOT a minor relief feature in the oceans? (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in sea water per: (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) Which one is the smallest ocean? (Pg. 9)

About ______ per cent of the planetary water is found in the oceans. (Pg. 3) Page 101

The steep slope where the continental shelf typically ends is called the ______. (Pg. 3) Page 101

Deep sea plains are the ______ and smoothest regions of the world. (Pg. 4) Page 102

A mountain with a pointed summit rising from the seafloor but not reaching the ocean surface is called a ______. (Pg. 4) Page 102

Low islands in tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central depression are called ______. (Pg. 5) Page 103

The boundary region in the ocean where temperature decreases rapidly with depth is called the ______. (Pg. 5) Page 103

The average temperature of the ocean surface water is about ______ °C. (Pg. 6) Page 104

Salinity is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ______. (Pg. 6) Page 104

(Exercise) The earth is called the ‘Blue Planet’ because of its abundant supply of ______. (Pg. 9) Page 107

1. What are the three broad approaches adopted for classifying world climate? Briefly describe each. (Pg. 1) Page 91
2. How does Koeppen’s scheme use letters to designate climatic groups and types? (Pg. 1) Page 91
3. Describe the characteristics of Koeppen’s Group A: Tropical Humid Climates. Name its three sub-types. (Pg. 2) Page 92
4. Differentiate between Tropical Wet (Af) and Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw) climates in terms of rainfall and seasons. (Pg. 2-3) Page 92-93
5. Name the four types of Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates (Group C). (Pg. 3) Page 93
6. Describe the location and key features of the Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb). (Pg. 4) Page 94
7. What geological and historical evidence indicates that climate change is a natural and continuous process? (Pg. 5) Page 95
8. List and briefly explain the astronomical and terrestrial causes of climate change. (Pg. 5) Page 95
9. Explain the greenhouse effect. How does it warm the atmosphere? (Pg. 6) Page 96
10. What are the potential adverse effects of global warming? (Pg. 6-7) Page 96-97

Koeppen’s climate classification scheme is primarily based on: (Pg. 1)

How many major climatic groups did Koeppen recognise, and what are they based on? (Pg. 1)

Which small letter in Koeppen’s scheme corresponds to ‘no dry season’? (Pg. 1-2)

Which climatic type (Af) is characterised by no dry season, uniformly high temperature, and thunderstorms every afternoon? (Pg. 2)

In Koeppen’s ‘B’ Dry Climates, the capital letter ‘S’ stands for: (Pg. 2)

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) climates are located in which latitude zone? (Pg. 3)

Which climate is characterised by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters and occurs around the Mediterranean Sea? (Pg. 3)

Cold Snow Forest Climates (Group D) occur in which hemisphere? (Pg. 4)

Which polar climate (ET) is named after low-growing vegetation and has a region of permafrost? (Pg. 4)

The last major peak glacial period was about how many years ago? (Pg. 5)

Which anthropogenic effect is considered the most important for recent climate change? (Pg. 5)

Which of the following is NOT a primary greenhouse gas (GHG) of concern? (Pg. 6)

The international protocol ratified in 1997 to reduce GHG emissions is called the: (Pg. 6)

According to the chapter, which year is noted as probably the warmest year of the 20th century and the whole millennium? (Pg. 7)

(Exercise) Which one is suitable for Koeppen’s “A” type of climate? (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as: (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped under: (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) Which year is supposed to have recorded the warmest temperature the world over? (Pg. 8)

(Exercise) Which group of four climates represents humid conditions? (Pg. 8)

Koeppen identified a close relationship between the distribution of ______ and climate. (Pg. 1) Page 91

In Koeppen’s scheme, the capital letters A, C, D, and E delineate ______ climates, while B indicates dry climates. (Pg. 1) Page 91

The small letters a, b, c, and d in Koeppen’s classification refer to the degree of severity of ______. (Pg. 2) Page 92

The ______ climate (Am) is found over the Indian subcontinent and has heavy rainfall mostly in summer with a dry winter. (Pg. 2) Page 92

Dry climates (B) are characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the ______ of plants. (Pg. 3) Page 93

Fog is common in coastal deserts bordering ______ currents. (Pg. 3) Page 93

The ______ climate (Cfa) lies on the eastern parts of continents in subtropical latitudes and has rainfall throughout the year. (Pg. 3-4) Page 93-94

Cold climate with dry winter (Dw) occurs mainly over ______ Asia. (Pg. 4) Page 94

In the ______ climate (EF), even in summer, the temperature is below freezing point. (Pg. 4) Page 94

Europe witnessed a “______” from 1550 to about 1850. (Pg. 5) Page 95

The term ______ is derived from the analogy to a glass structure used in cold areas for preserving heat. (Pg. 6) Page 96

Forests and oceans act as ______ for carbon dioxide. (Pg. 6) Page 96

The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone ______. (Pg. 6) Page 96

The seven warmest years during the period 1856-2000 were recorded in the last ______ of the 20th century. (Pg. 7) Page 97

(Exercise) The two climatic variables used by Koeppen are ______ and precipitation. (Pg. 8) Page 98

1. Name the three forms in which water is present in the atmosphere. What are the two main processes that add moisture to it? (Pg. 1) Page 86
2. What is meant by ‘saturated air’? What is the ‘dew point’? (Pg. 1) Page 86
3. What conditions favour a higher rate of evaporation? (Pg. 1) Page 86
4. List the forms that condensation can take after the dew point is reached. (Pg. 2) Page 87
5. Differentiate between fog and mist. What is smog? (Pg. 2) Page 87
6. Name and describe the four basic cloud types based on their height, shape, and appearance. (Pg. 2-3) Page 87-88
7. What is precipitation? Name the different forms it can take. (Pg. 3) Page 88
8. Describe the formation of hailstones. (Pg. 3) Page 88
9. Explain the process of Orographic or Relief rainfall. What is a ‘rain-shadow area’? (Pg. 4) Page 89
10. State the general patterns of world rainfall distribution with respect to latitude, coastal vs. interior areas, and windward vs. leeward sides. (Pg. 4) Page 89

What is the term for the actual amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air? (Pg. 1)

The main cause for the process of evaporation is: (Pg. 1)

Condensation in free air results from cooling around small particles known as: (Pg. 1)

What is deposited when condensation occurs on cooler solid surfaces with dew point above freezing? (Pg. 2)

What is a cloud with its base at or very near the ground called? (Pg. 2)

Which clouds are thin, detached, feathery, and formed at very high altitudes (8,000-12,000m)? (Pg. 2)

Which clouds are black or dark gray, very dense, and opaque? (Pg. 2-3)

What is precipitation in the form of fine flakes of snow called? (Pg. 3)

On the basis of origin, how many main types of rainfall are identified? (Pg. 3)

Which slope of a mountain receives greater rainfall in orographic precipitation? (Pg. 4)

Which regions receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per annum? (Pg. 4)

(Exercise) Which one of the following processes is responsible for transforming liquid into vapour? (Pg. 5)

(Exercise) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity is called: (Pg. 5)

(Exercise) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky? (Pg. 5)

The percentage of moisture present compared to the air’s full capacity at a given temperature is called ______ humidity. (Pg. 1) Page 86

The transformation of water vapour into water is called ______. (Pg. 1) Page 86

The most favourable condition for condensation is the ______ in air temperature. (Pg. 1-2) Page 86-87

When condensation takes place below freezing point, forming minute ice crystals, it is called ______. (Pg. 2) Page 87

Clouds are masses of minute water droplets or ice crystals formed by the ______ of water vapour in free air. (Pg. 2) Page 87

Cumulus clouds look like ______ and have a flat base. (Pg. 2) Page 87

Layered clouds covering large portions of the sky are called ______ clouds. (Pg. 2) Page 87

Frozen raindrops or refrozen melted snow-water that falls as small ice pellets is called ______. (Pg. 3) Page 88

Rainfall caused when heated air rises, expands, cools, and condenses is called ______ rain. (Pg. 3) Page 88

The area on the leeward side of a mountain that gets less rainfall is known as the ______ area. (Pg. 4) Page 89

Areas in high latitudes and rain-shadow zones receive very low rainfall, less than ______ cm per annum. (Pg. 4) Page 89

(Exercise) The three types of precipitation are rain, snow, and ______. (Pg. 5) Page 90

1. What is atmospheric pressure? How is it defined and what is its average value at sea level? (Pg. 1) Page 76
2. Describe the vertical variation of atmospheric pressure. What is the standard rate of decrease? (Pg. 1) Page 76
3. What is represented by a low-pressure system and a high-pressure system on a weather map? (Pg. 2) Page 77
4. Name and describe the major pressure belts of the world. Are they permanent? (Pg. 2-3) Page 77-78
5. Explain the Pressure Gradient Force. When is it strong or weak? (Pg. 3) Page 78
6. Explain how the Coriolis force affects wind direction in both hemispheres. Why are tropical cyclones not formed near the equator? (Pg. 3-4) Page 78-79
7. Using Table 9.2, describe the pattern of wind direction in cyclones and anticyclones in both hemispheres. (Pg. 4) Page 79
8. Describe the Hadley cell circulation in the tropics. (Pg. 5) Page 80
9. What are land and sea breezes? Explain their formation. (Pg. 6) Page 81
10. What is an air mass? Name the five major source regions and the corresponding air mass types. (Pg. 6) Page 81
11. What are extra-tropical cyclones? Describe their formation and characteristics. (Pg. 7) Page 82
12. List the conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical cyclones. (Pg. 8) Page 83
13. Describe the structure of a mature tropical cyclone, including the eye and eye wall. (Pg. 8) Page 83

What is the primary cause of air motion (wind)? (Pg. 1)

What is the approximate decrease in pressure for every 10m increase in elevation in the lower atmosphere? (Pg. 1)

Near the equator, the sea level pressure zone is known as: (Pg. 2)

What is the combined effect that horizontal winds near the Earth’s surface respond to? (Pg. 3)

The frictional force affecting wind speed is greatest: (Pg. 3)

When isobars are straight and friction is absent, the wind blowing parallel to the isobars is called: (Pg. 4)

Over a low-pressure area at the surface, the air generally: (Pg. 4)

The combined phenomenon of Southern Oscillation and El Nino is known as: (Pg. 5)

During the day, the wind blows from: (Pg. 6)

Which of the following is a warm air mass? (Pg. 6)

Extra-tropical cyclones have a clear: (Pg. 7-8)

What is the calm centre of a mature tropical cyclone called? (Pg. 8)

Thunderstorms are caused by: (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) If the surface air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure at 1 km above the surface will be: (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone normally occurs: (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) The direction of wind around a low pressure in northern hemisphere is: (Pg. 9)

(Exercise) Which one is the source region for the formation of air masses? (Pg. 9)

The instrument used to measure air pressure is a ______. (Pg. 1) Page 76

Lines connecting places having equal pressure are called ______. (Pg. 2) Page 77

The high-pressure areas found along 30° N and 30° S are called ______ highs. (Pg. 2) Page 77

The force exerted by the rotation of the Earth which affects wind direction is the ______ force. (Pg. 3) Page 78

The Coriolis force is maximum at the ______ and absent at the equator. (Pg. 3-4) Page 78-79

The wind circulation around a low-pressure area is called ______ circulation. (Pg. 4) Page 79

The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the ______ of the atmosphere. (Pg. 4) Page 79

The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the ______. (Pg. 5) Page 80

The cool air draining from high plateaus into valleys is called ______ wind. (Pg. 6) Page 81

The boundary zone where two different air masses meet is called a ______. (Pg. 6) Page 81

Extra-tropical cyclones generally move from ______ to east. (Pg. 8) Page 83

Tropical cyclones in the Indian Ocean are known as ______. (Pg. 8) Page 83

A tornado over the sea is called a ______. (Pg. 9) Page 84

(Exercise) The pressure is measured in units of ______. (Pg. 9) Page 84

1. What is insolation? Explain the concept briefly. (Pg. 1) Page 67
2. What are the main factors that cause variations in insolation at the Earth’s surface? (Pg. 1-2) Page 67-68
3. Describe the spatial distribution of insolation across the Earth’s surface. (Pg. 2) Page 68
4. What is advection and how does it influence weather, especially in middle latitudes? (Pg. 2) Page 68
5. Explain the heat budget of the Earth. How is the incoming solar energy balanced? (Pg. 3) Page 69
6. What does Figure 8.3 indicate about the latitudinal variation in net radiation balance? (Pg. 4) Page 70
7. Explain how distance from the sea moderates temperature. (Pg. 4) Page 70
8. Describe the major features of global temperature distribution in January. (Pg. 5) Page 71
9. What is temperature inversion? Describe an ideal condition for it to occur. (Pg. 7) Page 73

When is the earth at its farthest point from the sun (aphelion)? (Pg. 1)

Why do slant sun rays (at higher latitudes) result in less net energy per unit area? (Pg. 2)

Over which areas is maximum insolation received? (Pg. 2)

What is the primary process by which the atmosphere is heated from below? (Pg. 2-3)

What is the term for the percentage of solar radiation reflected back by the Earth and its atmosphere? (Pg. 3)

Which of the following is NOT a factor controlling the temperature distribution of a place? (Pg. 4)

Why do places at higher altitudes generally have lower temperatures? (Pg. 4)

In January, why do isotherms bend northward over the North Atlantic Ocean? (Pg. 5)

What is a common consequence of a surface temperature inversion? (Pg. 7)

(Exercise) The sun is directly overhead at noon on 21st June at: (Pg. 7)

(Exercise) The atmosphere is mainly heated by the: (Pg. 7)

(Exercise) The main reason the earth experiences highest temperatures in the subtropics rather than at the equator is: (Pg. 8)

The energy received by the earth from the sun is termed ______. (Pg. 1) Page 67

The red colour of the rising/setting sun and blue sky are results of ______ of light. (Pg. 2) Page 68

The transfer of heat through direct contact between two bodies is called ______. (Pg. 2) Page 68

The process of vertical heating of the atmosphere through rising air currents is ______. (Pg. 2) Page 68

Out of 100 units of insolation, roughly ______ units are absorbed by the Earth’s surface. (Pg. 3) Page 69

The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing height is called the ______. (Pg. 4) Page 70

Lines joining places of equal temperature on a map are called ______. (Pg. 5) Page 71

The highest range of temperature (>60°C) is found over the ______ part of Eurasia. (Pg. 7) Page 73

In hilly areas, cold air flowing down slopes to collect in valleys is called air ______. (Pg. 7) Page 73

(Exercise) Pair the term ‘Albedo’ with its correct definition. (Pg. 8) Page 74