Class 12 History – Themes in Indian History Part III

Theme 9: Colonialism and the Countryside

Exploring Official Archives

This chapter examines how British colonial rule transformed rural society, especially through new revenue systems, changes in land rights, expansion of settled agriculture, the growth of moneylending, and peasant and tribal resistance.

The chapter focuses on three major regions and developments:

1. Bengal and the Zamindars
2. The Rajmahal Hills – Paharias and Santhals
3. The Bombay Deccan – Deccan Riots

It also teaches an important historical skill: how to use and critically examine official archives and reports.

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1. Bengal and the Zamindars

Colonial rule was first firmly established in Bengal. The British attempted to reorganise rural society by introducing new systems of land rights and revenue collection.

The most important measure was the Permanent Settlement of 1793.

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1.1 The Auction in Burdwan

In 1797, a major auction was held at Burdwan (present-day Bardhaman).

The estates of the Raja of Burdwan were put up for auction because he had accumulated large amounts of unpaid revenue.

Why were estates auctioned?

Under the Permanent Settlement:

• The Company fixed the amount of revenue that each zamindar had to pay.
• Revenue had to be paid regularly.
• If a zamindar failed to pay, his estate could be auctioned.

What happened at Burdwan?

Many people appeared as purchasers and bought the estates.

But the Collector discovered that most purchasers were actually:

• servants of the Raja
• agents of the Raja
• people purchasing land on his behalf.

More than 95% of the sale was fictitious.

Thus, although the estates had supposedly been sold publicly, the Raja continued to control his zamindari.

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2. The Permanent Settlement

The Permanent Settlement came into operation in 1793.

British officials wanted to solve the problems they had faced after conquering Bengal.

By the 1770s, Bengal’s rural economy was suffering from:

• recurrent famines
• declining agricultural production
• weak revenue resources.

The British believed that agricultural development could be encouraged by:

1. securing property rights
2. permanently fixing the revenue demand
3. encouraging investment in agriculture.

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British expectations from the Permanent Settlement

The British expected that permanently fixed revenue would:

• provide the Company with a regular flow of revenue.
• encourage zamindars to invest in agriculture.
• encourage agricultural improvement.
• create a class of rich landowners and prosperous farmers.
• make these landowners loyal to the British.

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3. Who were the Zamindars?

The Permanent Settlement was made with the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal.

They were classified as zamindars.

Important point:

A zamindar was not simply a landowner.

In the Company’s system, the zamindar was essentially a revenue collector of the state.

A zamindari could contain several villages—sometimes as many as 400 villages.

Zamindar’s role

The zamindar:

• collected rent from villages.
• paid the fixed revenue to the Company.
• kept the difference as income.

If the zamindar failed:

Unpaid revenue → Estate auction

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4. Why did Zamindars fail to pay revenue?

Despite the Permanent Settlement, many zamindars regularly defaulted.

There were several reasons.

Reason 1 – Revenue demand was extremely high

The Company deliberately fixed the demand at a high level.

It feared that if agricultural production and prices increased, it would lose the opportunity to obtain a share of the increased income.

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Reason 2 – Agricultural prices were low

The high revenue demand was introduced in the 1790s, when agricultural prices were depressed.

This made it difficult for ryots to pay rent.

If ryots could not pay the zamindar:

Ryots unable to pay → Zamindar unable to pay Company

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Reason 3 – Revenue had to be paid regardless of harvest

The revenue demand was:

• fixed
• invariable
• payable punctually.

It had to be paid even when the harvest was poor.

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Reason 4 – The Sunset Law

Under the Sunset Law, if payment was not made by sunset on the specified date, the zamindari could be auctioned.

Remember:

Failure to pay before sunset → Zamindari auction

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5. Loss of Zamindari Power

The British recognised zamindars but simultaneously tried to control their authority.

The zamindars:

• lost their armed troops.
• lost control over local justice.
• lost control over local police.
• lost customs duties.
• had their cutcheries brought under the supervision of the Company’s Collector.

The Collectorate gradually became an alternative centre of authority.

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6. Problems of Rent Collection

Zamindars had to collect rent from ryots.

Their officers, usually called amlahs, went to villages to collect rent.

But collection was difficult because:

• harvests could be poor.
• agricultural prices could fall.
• ryots sometimes deliberately delayed payment.
• rich peasants and village headmen resisted zamindars.

Jotedars and Mandals

Rich peasants and village headmen—especially jotedars and mandals—could challenge zamindari authority.

Zamindars could take defaulters to court, but the judicial process was slow.

In Burdwan alone, there were more than 30,000 pending suits concerning rent arrears in 1798.

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7. Rise of the Jotedars

While zamindars faced difficulties, a powerful group of rich peasants emerged.

They were called jotedars.

Francis Buchanan’s survey of Dinajpur provides information about them.

By the early nineteenth century, some jotedars controlled:

• thousands of acres of land
• local trade
• moneylending.

They exercised considerable influence over poorer cultivators.

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Jotedars and Sharecroppers

A large portion of jotedar land was cultivated by sharecroppers.

They were known as:

• adhiyars
• bargadars

They:

• brought their own ploughs.
• worked on the land.
• gave half the produce to the jotedar after harvest.

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8. Why were Jotedars powerful?

Jotedars were often more powerful locally than zamindars.

Why?

Zamindars

• often lived in towns/cities.
• exercised authority indirectly.

Jotedars

• lived in villages.
• directly controlled poor cultivators.
• controlled trade and moneylending.
• had close connections with villagers.

They also:

• resisted increases in rent/revenue.
• prevented zamindari officials from performing their duties.
• mobilised ryots.
• delayed payments.
• sometimes purchased auctioned zamindaris.

Other names for similar rich peasants

Depending on the region, they were also called:

• Haoladars
• Gantidars
• Mandals

Result:

Rise of jotedars → Weakening of zamindari authority

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9. How did Zamindars Resist the British?

Zamindars developed different strategies to protect their estates.

One important method was fictitious sale.

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Benami / Fictitious Purchases

Benami literally means anonymous.

The property is purchased in the name of another person while the real beneficiary remains hidden.

Burdwan Raja’s strategy

The Raja:

1. transferred some zamindari to his mother.
2. took advantage of the rule protecting women’s property.
3. deliberately allowed revenue arrears to accumulate.
4. allowed parts of his estate to be auctioned.
5. his agents purchased the property.
6. they refused to pay the purchase money.
7. the estate was auctioned again.
8. his agents purchased it again.

This process could be repeated until the estate eventually returned to the zamindar at a low price.

Between 1793 and 1801, four major zamindaris, including Burdwan, made benami purchases worth around Rs 30 lakh.

More than 15% of auction sales were fictitious.

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10. Resistance to New Zamindars

When outsiders purchased zamindaris at auctions, they could face resistance.

The former zamindar’s:

• lathiyals (strongmen wielding sticks)
• agents
• ryots

could prevent outsiders from taking possession.

Why did ryots support the old zamindar?

They often regarded the zamindar as:

• a traditional authority figure
• their ruler
• their proja (subjects)

Therefore, the sale of a zamindari could disturb their sense of identity and loyalty.

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11. The Fifth Report

The Fifth Report was submitted to the British Parliament in 1813.

It was the fifth in a series of reports concerning the administration and activities of the East India Company.

It contained:

• petitions from zamindars and ryots
• reports of Collectors
• revenue statistics
• information about judicial administration
• reports concerning Bengal and Madras.

The report contained 1,002 pages, including more than 800 pages of appendices.

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Why should historians be careful with the Fifth Report?

The Fifth Report is an important source, but it cannot be accepted uncritically.

Recent research suggests that the report:

• exaggerated the collapse of traditional zamindari power.
• overestimated the extent of zamindari land loss.
• did not fully account for the strategies zamindars used to retain their estates.

Historical lesson:

Official sources are valuable, but historians must examine who created them, why they were created and what their biases were.

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12. The Hoe and the Plough

The chapter now shifts from Bengal to the Rajmahal Hills.

Here we encounter:

• Paharias
• Santhals

The central issue was the expansion of settled agriculture into forest regions.

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13. The Paharias of Rajmahal Hills

The Paharias lived around the Rajmahal Hills.

Their economy depended heavily on the forest.

They practised:

Shifting cultivation

They:

1. cleared patches of forest.
2. cut bushes.
3. burnt the undergrowth.
4. used the ash to enrich the soil.
5. grew pulses and millets.
6. cultivated for a few years.
7. allowed the land to recover.
8. moved to another area.

They used hoes rather than ploughs.

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14. Forest-based Economy of the Paharias

The Paharias depended on forests for:

• food
• fuel
• pasture
• forest products
• silk cocoons
• resin
• charcoal production.

They collected mahua flowers for food.

Their lives involved:

• hunting
• shifting cultivation
• food gathering
• charcoal production
• silkworm rearing.

Key idea:

Paharia life = Forest + Hoe + Mobility

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15. Paharia Chiefs and Raids

Paharia chiefs:

• maintained unity.
• settled disputes.
• led their people in battles.

Paharias sometimes raided settled agricultural villages in the plains.

These raids served several purposes:

• obtaining food during scarcity.
• asserting power.
• negotiating political relations.

Zamindars sometimes paid tribute to the hill chiefs in return for peace.

Traders also paid fees to use passes controlled by Paharias.

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16. British Expansion into the Rajmahal Hills

The British wanted to expand settled agriculture because they believed it would:

• increase land revenue.
• produce crops for export.
• create a settled and orderly society.

They viewed forests negatively, associating them with:

• wildness
• disorder
• primitive life.

They wanted forest communities to:

stop hunting → clear forests → practise settled agriculture

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17. British Policies towards the Paharias

1770s – Extermination

The British adopted a brutal policy:

• hunted Paharias.
• killed them.
• attempted to destroy their resistance.

1780s – Pacification

Augustus Cleveland, Collector of Bhagalpur, proposed another approach.

Paharia chiefs were offered:

• annual allowances
• responsibility for maintaining order
• authority to discipline their people.

Many chiefs rejected these allowances.

Those who accepted them often lost authority within their communities because they came to be seen as employees of the colonial government.

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18. Arrival of the Santhals

The Santhals began entering Bengal around the 1780s.

Zamindars employed them to:

• clear forests
• reclaim land
• expand cultivation.

British officials also encouraged them to settle in the Jangal Mahals.

Unlike the Paharias, Santhals were seen by British officials as ideal settlers because they:

• cleared forests.
• ploughed land.
• cultivated vigorously.

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19. Damin-i-Koh

In 1832, a large area of land was demarcated as Damin-i-Koh.

It was declared the land of the Santhals.

They were expected to:

• settle there.
• practise plough agriculture.
• become settled peasants.

The land grant required them to clear and cultivate at least one-tenth of the area within the first ten years.

The territory was:

• surveyed.
• mapped.
• marked with boundary pillars.

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20. Growth of Santhal Settlements

The Santhal population and settlements increased rapidly.

Year	Santhal Villages	Santhal Population
1838	40	3,000
1851	1,473	82,000+

As cultivation expanded:

More cultivation → More revenue for Company

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21. Hoe vs Plough

This is one of the most important concepts in the chapter.

Paharias

Hoe → Shifting cultivation → Forest-based life → Mobility

Santhals

Plough → Settled cultivation → Forest clearance → Permanent settlements

Thus:

The hoe symbolised Paharia life, while the plough represented the expanding power of settled agriculture and Santhal settlers.

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22. Problems Faced by the Paharias

The expansion of Santhal settlements forced Paharias deeper into the hills.

They lost access to:

• fertile land
• forests
• hunting grounds
• valleys
• areas necessary for shifting cultivation.

As a result, their traditional economy was severely weakened.

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23. Why did the Santhals Rebel?

The Santhals initially benefited from settlement but later found that their land was slipping away.

They faced:

1. Heavy taxation

The colonial state imposed heavy taxes.

2. Moneylenders

Moneylenders, called dikus, charged high interest.

3. Land loss

When debts were unpaid, moneylenders took over Santhal land.

4. Zamindari control

Zamindars increasingly asserted control over Damin-i-Koh.

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24. Santhal Revolt – 1855–56

By the 1850s, Santhals decided to rebel against:

• zamindars
• moneylenders
• colonial state.

They wanted to create an ideal world where they could rule themselves.

Result

After the Santhal Revolt of 1855–56, the Santhal Pargana was created.

It covered about 5,500 square miles taken from Bhagalpur and Birbhum districts.

Special laws were introduced in the new territory in the hope of conciliating the Santhals.

Important leader:

Sidhu Manjhi

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25. Colonial Images of the Santhals

The textbook’s illustrations are important sources.

Fig. 9.10

A peaceful-looking Santhal village.

Fig. 9.12

Santhals fighting British sepoys.

Fig. 9.13

Burning of Santhal villages.

Fig. 9.14

Santhal prisoners being taken away.

The textbook highlights how the images published in the Illustrated London News conveyed political messages and could influence British perceptions of the Santhals.

Historical lesson:

Images are not always neutral records.

They may be created to communicate a particular political message.

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26. Francis Buchanan

Francis Buchanan was an important source for understanding the countryside.

He:

• was a physician.
• served in the Bengal Medical Service.
• conducted surveys for the British East India Company.
• travelled with surveyors, draughtsmen and other assistants.
• recorded information about land, crops, minerals and local practices.

He later became known as Buchanan-Hamilton.

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27. Limitations of Buchanan’s Accounts

Buchanan was not an independent observer.

He worked for the East India Company.

The Company financed his journeys because it needed information about:

• natural resources
• revenue
• agriculture
• minerals
• commercially valuable products.

Buchanan often judged landscapes according to whether they could be made more productive.

He wanted:

• forests cleared.
• more land cultivated.
• commercially useful trees planted.

Therefore:

His descriptions reflect colonial economic interests and Western ideas of progress.

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28. Buchanan’s Idea of Development

Buchanan often viewed:

Forest → uncultivated → unproductive

and

Cultivated land → productive → developed

This differed greatly from the viewpoint of forest communities.

For a Paharia:

Forest = home + livelihood + identity + survival

This difference is crucial for understanding colonial environmental policies.

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29. A Revolt in the Countryside – Bombay Deccan

The chapter now shifts to western India.

The focus is on the Deccan Riots of 1875.

The revolt began in Supa, a large village and market centre in Poona district.

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30. Account Books are Burnt

On 12 May 1875, ryots from surrounding villages gathered at Supa.

They attacked:

• shopkeepers
• moneylenders
• grain dealers.

They demanded:

• bahi khatas (account books)
• debt bonds.

They:

• burnt account books.
• destroyed debt bonds.
• looted grain shops.
• sometimes burned sahukars’ houses.

The revolt spread from Poona to Ahmednagar.

Over the next two months:

• more than 30 villages were affected.
• the revolt spread across about 6,500 sq km.
• 951 people were arrested.

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31. Sahukars

A sahukar was someone who acted as both:

• a moneylender
• a trader

The ryots had become heavily dependent on them for credit.

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32. Why did Deccan Ryots Hate Moneylenders?

The problem developed over decades.

Several factors combined:

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33. Ryotwari Revenue System

Unlike Bengal’s Permanent Settlement, the Bombay Deccan used the Ryotwari Settlement.

Main features

Revenue was settled directly with the ryot.

The government:

1. estimated average income from different soils.
2. assessed the ryot’s revenue-paying capacity.
3. fixed the state’s share.
4. resurveyed land every 30 years.
5. increased revenue rates.

Important difference:

Permanent Settlement → Revenue permanently fixed

Ryotwari → Revenue periodically revised

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34. Permanent Settlement vs Ryotwari

Feature	Permanent Settlement	Ryotwari Settlement
Main region	Bengal	Bombay Deccan
Revenue settled with	Zamindar	Ryot
Revenue	Permanently fixed	Periodically revised
Introduced	1793	Early 19th century
Main objective	Regular revenue + encourage zamindar investment	Maximise state revenue
Major problem	Zamindar defaults	Peasant indebtedness

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35. Revenue Demand and Peasant Debt

The first revenue settlement in the Bombay Deccan was made in the 1820s.

The demand was extremely high.

Consequences:

• peasants deserted villages.
• some migrated elsewhere.
• poor rainfall increased difficulties.
• crop failures made revenue payment impossible.

Collectors nevertheless demanded payment strictly.

If peasants failed:

• crops could be seized.
• fines could be imposed.

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36. Famine and Falling Prices

The situation worsened during the 1830s.

After 1832, agricultural prices fell sharply and remained low for more than a decade.

At the same time, the Deccan experienced famine in 1832–34.

According to the textbook:

• about one-third of cattle died.
• about half the human population died.

Peasants had very few agricultural resources left.

Therefore, borrowing became unavoidable.

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37. Peasant Indebtedness

Peasants borrowed money for:

• paying revenue.
• buying food.
• purchasing seeds.
• buying cattle.
• purchasing ploughs.
• meeting household expenses.
• marriages.

But once a loan was taken:

Loan → Interest → Debt → More loans → Greater dependence

By the 1840s, officials observed widespread peasant indebtedness.

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38. Agricultural Recovery

By the mid-1840s:

• agricultural prices began recovering.
• revenue demand was moderated.
• peasants expanded cultivation.
• new areas were brought under cultivation.
• pasturelands were converted into fields.

But expansion required:

• ploughs
• cattle
• seeds
• land
• money.

Therefore peasants again turned to moneylenders.

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39. The Cotton Boom

The American Civil War (1861–65) transformed the Deccan cotton economy.

Before the 1860s:

About three-fourths of Britain’s raw cotton imports came from America.

When the American Civil War began, American cotton supplies collapsed.

In 1862, American cotton imports into Britain fell dramatically.

India was seen as an alternative source.

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40. India and the Cotton Boom

British manufacturers wanted Indian cotton because India had:

• suitable soil.
• suitable climate.
• cheap labour.

British organisations encouraged cotton production.

Important developments

• 1857: Cotton Supply Association founded in Britain.
• 1859: Manchester Cotton Company formed.
• 1861: American Civil War began.
• Indian cotton exports expanded rapidly.

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41. Easy Credit During the Boom

As cotton prices increased:

Credit became easily available.

Peasants could receive about Rs 100 advance for every acre planted with cotton.

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42. Cotton Production

Between 1860 and 1864:

Cotton acreage doubled.

By 1862:

More than 90% of cotton imports into Britain were coming from India.

But the boom did not benefit everyone.

Rich peasants

Some gained from higher cotton prices.

Majority of peasants

Many became more heavily indebted.

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43. Credit Dries Up

By 1865, the cotton boom ended.

The American Civil War ended.

American cotton production recovered.

Therefore:

American cotton returns → Indian demand falls → Cotton prices fall

Indian merchants and sahukars:

• reduced advances.
• stopped giving long-term credit.
• demanded repayment of old loans.

At the same time, government revenue demand increased dramatically.

The new settlement increased demand by 50–100%.

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44. Why did Ryots Become Angry?

The peasants faced a terrible combination:

Cotton prices ↓

Credit ↓

Revenue demand ↑

Debt ↑

Moneylenders refuse loans

This created intense resentment.

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45. Experience of Injustice

The peasants were angry not merely because they were in debt.

They believed that moneylenders were violating traditional norms.

Earlier, one customary principle was:

Interest should not exceed the principal.

But under colonial conditions, this norm weakened.

In one case investigated by the Deccan Riots Commission:

Loan = Rs 100

Interest charged = more than Rs 2,000

This was viewed by ryots as deeply unjust.

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46. Deeds of Hire

When peasants could not repay loans, they sometimes had to surrender:

• land
• carts
• cattle
• other possessions.

But without cattle they could not cultivate.

Therefore, they had to:

Give cattle to moneylender → Take the same cattle on hire

They then paid rent for animals that had once belonged to them.

This shows the extreme dependence of peasants on moneylenders.

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47. Bonds and Legal Documents

British rule increasingly required transactions to be recorded through:

• contracts
• deeds
• bonds.

Peasants often:

• could not understand the documents.
• signed them with thumb impressions.
• did not know what clauses were included.
• feared written documents.

Moneylenders were accused of:

• manipulating accounts.
• forging figures.
• refusing receipts.
• adding fictitious amounts.
• taking crops at low prices.
• taking over peasant property.

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48. The Limitation Law of 1859

The British introduced the Limitation Law in 1859.

It stated that loan bonds between moneylenders and ryots would remain valid for only three years.

Intended purpose:

To prevent interest from accumulating indefinitely.

What happened?

Moneylenders found ways around it.

They made the ryot sign a new bond every three years.

The accumulated interest was added to the principal.

Thus:

Old loan + interest → New principal → New interest

Debt continued to grow.

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49. Deccan Riots – 1875

The peasants eventually rebelled.

Main target:

Moneylenders / Sahukars

Major actions:

• account books were burned.
• bonds were destroyed.
• grain shops were attacked.
• moneylenders’ houses were attacked.
• sahukars fled villages.

The British responded by:

• establishing police posts.
• sending troops.
• arresting rebels.
• prosecuting those accused.

It took several months to restore colonial control.

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50. Deccan Riots Commission

The Government of India pressured the Bombay Government to establish an enquiry commission.

The Deccan Riots Commission produced its report in 1878.

It collected:

• statements of ryots.
• statements of sahukars.
• eyewitness accounts.
• revenue statistics.
• price data.
• interest-rate information.
• reports from district Collectors.

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51. Limitations of the Deccan Riots Report

The Commission was asked to determine whether government revenue demand caused the revolt.

Its conclusion was that:

Government revenue demand was not the main cause of peasant anger; moneylenders were blamed.

The textbook asks us to question this conclusion.

Why?

Colonial governments were often reluctant to admit that:

their own policies → popular discontent

Therefore, official sources must be compared with:

• newspapers
• legal records
• unofficial accounts
• oral sources.

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Important Historical Sources in the Chapter

Source	What it tells us
Revenue records	Revenue demands and collections
Surveys	Land, crops, people and resources
Buchanan’s journals	Rural landscapes and communities
Fifth Report	Bengal administration and zamindars
Deccan Riots Commission Report	Peasant revolt and indebtedness
Petitions	Peasant grievances
Account books	Moneylending and debt
Bonds/deeds	Nature of credit relationships
Newspapers	Contemporary views and reports
Paintings/illustrations	Colonial representations of rural society

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How Historians Should Read Official Sources

This is a very important theme of the chapter.

Whenever you read an official source, ask:

1. Who wrote it? Was it a Collector, surveyor, administrator or another official?
2. Why was it written? Was it created for administration, taxation, investigation or political purposes?
3. Who was the intended audience?
4. What assumptions did the writer have?
5. What might the source exaggerate or ignore?
6. Can it be compared with other evidence?

Golden rule:

Official records are valuable, but they should never be accepted uncritically.

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Timeline – Colonialism and the Countryside

Year	Event
1765	East India Company acquires Diwani of Bengal
1773	Regulating Act passed
1793	Permanent Settlement introduced in Bengal
1800s	Santhals begin settling in Rajmahal Hills
1813	Fifth Report submitted to British Parliament
1818	First revenue settlement in Bombay Deccan
1820s	Agricultural prices begin to fall
1832	Damin-i-Koh demarcated
1832–34	Famine in Deccan
1840s–50s	Agrarian expansion in Bombay Deccan
1855–56	Santhal Revolt
1861	Cotton boom begins
1865	Cotton boom ends
1875	Deccan Ryots’ Revolt
1878	Deccan Riots Commission Report

The timeline is given in the textbook on page 256.

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Important Terms

Zamindar

A revenue collector under the Permanent Settlement who collected rent from villages and paid fixed revenue to the Company.

Permanent Settlement

The revenue settlement introduced in Bengal in 1793, under which the revenue demand was permanently fixed.

Ryot

A peasant/cultivator.

Jotedar

A rich peasant who controlled large areas of land and often engaged in trade and moneylending.

Adhiyar / Bargadar

A sharecropper who cultivated land and shared the produce with the landholder.

Benami

A transaction made in the name of another person while the actual beneficiary remains hidden.

Lathyal

A strongman employed by a zamindar.

Amlah

An officer of the zamindar who collected rent.

Paharias

Forest-dwelling communities of the Rajmahal Hills who practised shifting cultivation.

Santhals

A tribal community encouraged by the British and zamindars to settle and practise plough agriculture.

Damin-i-Koh

The territory demarcated in 1832 for Santhal settlement and cultivation.

Diku

A term used by Santhals for outsiders such as moneylenders.

Sahukar

A moneylender and trader.

Ryotwari Settlement

A revenue system in which revenue was settled directly with the cultivator.

Rentier

A person who lives on rental income.

Fifth Report

A major report on East India Company administration submitted to the British Parliament in 1813.

Deccan Riots Commission

The commission established to investigate the causes of the 1875 Deccan riots.

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Most Important Comparisons

Zamindar vs Jotedar

Zamindar	Jotedar
Revenue collector	Rich peasant
Controlled many villages	Controlled large areas of land
Often lived in towns	Lived in villages
Collected rent	Cultivated and controlled land
Depended on Company system	Exercised local influence
Authority weakened during crisis	Power increased

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Paharias vs Santhals

Paharias	Santhals
Forest dwellers	Settlers encouraged into forest areas
Shifting cultivation	Settled plough agriculture
Used hoe	Used plough
Depended heavily on forests	Cleared forests
Mobile	Became settled
Resisted outsiders	Initially encouraged by British
Eventually pushed deeper into hills	Expanded settlements in Damin-i-Koh

Memory trick:

Paharias = Hoe + Hills + Forest + Mobility

Santhals = Plough + Settlement + Cultivation

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Permanent Settlement vs Ryotwari

Permanent Settlement

Bengal → Zamindar → Revenue permanently fixed

Ryotwari

Bombay Deccan → Ryot → Revenue periodically revised

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NCERT Important Questions – Answer Points

1. Why was the jotedar a powerful figure in many areas of rural Bengal?

Answer points:

• Jotedars were rich peasants.
• They controlled large areas of land.
• Some controlled thousands of acres.
• They engaged in trade and moneylending.
• They employed sharecroppers.
• They lived in villages and directly controlled poor cultivators.
• They resisted zamindars.
• They mobilised ryots.
• They sometimes purchased auctioned zamindari estates.

Conclusion: Their direct influence over village society made them more powerful locally than many zamindars.

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2. How did zamindars retain control over their zamindaris?

They used several strategies:

• fictitious auctions.
• benami purchases.
• transferring property to women.
• using agents to buy auctioned estates.
• refusing to pay purchase money so that estates were auctioned again.
• using lathiyals to prevent outsiders from taking possession.
• relying on the loyalty of ryots.

Thus, auction did not necessarily mean that the zamindar actually lost control.

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3. How did the Paharias respond to outsiders?

The Paharias:

• resisted outsiders.
• raided settled villages.
• negotiated with zamindars and traders.
• resisted British attempts to control them.
• rejected or resisted pacification policies.
• withdrew deeper into the hills when British and Santhal settlement expanded.

Their resistance was closely linked to protecting their forests, land and traditional way of life.

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4. Why did the Santhals rebel against British rule?

Santhals rebelled because:

• heavy taxes were imposed.
• moneylenders charged high interest.
• moneylenders took over their land when debts remained unpaid.
• zamindars asserted control over Damin-i-Koh.
• their original expectations from settlement were undermined.

The Santhal Revolt took place in 1855–56.

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5. What explains the anger of the Deccan ryots against moneylenders?

Their anger resulted from:

• heavy indebtedness.
• high interest rates.
• manipulation of accounts.
• refusal to provide receipts.
• forced signing of bonds.
• conversion of old interest into new principal.
• seizure of crops and property.
• taking over land, cattle and carts.
• violation of customary norms of fair interest.

The cotton boom and its collapse intensified the crisis.

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Long-Answer Questions

6. Why were many zamindaris auctioned after the Permanent Settlement?

Structure for a 250–300 word answer:

Introduction

• Permanent Settlement fixed revenue permanently.
• Zamindars had to pay punctually.

Reasons for default

1. Revenue demand was extremely high.
2. Agricultural prices were low in the 1790s.
3. Ryots struggled to pay rent.
4. Revenue had to be paid even when harvests were poor.
5. Sunset Law made punctual payment compulsory.
6. Zamindars lost traditional authority over villages.
7. Jotedars and rich peasants resisted them.

Result

• Large numbers of zamindaris were auctioned.
• More than 75% changed hands after the Permanent Settlement.

But

• Many zamindars used fictitious/benami purchases and other strategies to retain control.

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7. How was the livelihood of the Paharias different from that of the Santhals?

Paharias

• forest-based economy.
• shifting cultivation.
• hunting.
• gathering.
• charcoal production.
• silk-related activities.
• mobility.
• used hoes.

Santhals

• settled agriculture.
• cleared forests.
• used ploughs.
• grew rice, cotton and commercial crops.
• interacted with traders and moneylenders.
• settled permanently in Damin-i-Koh.

Core difference:

Paharia = forest + hoe + shifting cultivation

Santhal = settlement + plough + settled cultivation

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8. How did the American Civil War affect Indian ryots?

Before the Civil War:

America supplied most of Britain’s raw cotton.

During the Civil War:

American cotton supplies collapsed.

Consequences for India:

• Britain urgently needed Indian cotton.
• Cotton prices increased.
• Merchants encouraged cultivation.
• Credit became easily available.
• Peasants received advances.
• Cotton acreage doubled between 1860 and 1864.
• Indian cotton supplied more than 90% of British cotton imports by 1862.

After the Civil War:

• American cotton production recovered.
• Indian demand declined.
• Cotton prices fell.
• Merchants withdrew credit.
• Moneylenders demanded repayment.
• Revenue demand increased.

Thus, the boom ultimately left many Deccan peasants with heavier debt.

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9. What are the problems of using official sources to write peasant history?

Official sources are extremely useful because they contain:

• revenue records.
• surveys.
• petitions.
• reports.
• statistics.
• statements.

But they also have limitations.

Problems:

• They reflect the viewpoint of officials.
• They were created for administrative purposes.
• Officials had their own assumptions and prejudices.
• Colonial governments could minimise the role of their own policies.
• Reports could exaggerate certain developments.
• They might blame peasants or moneylenders rather than colonial policies.

Solution:

Historians should compare official records with:

newspapers + legal records + unofficial accounts + oral sources + local records

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Exam-Focused One-Liners

• Permanent Settlement: 1793
• Permanent Settlement region: Bengal
• Permanent Settlement associated with: Zamindars
• Ryotwari region discussed: Bombay Deccan
• Ryotwari revenue settled with: Ryot
• Fifth Report: 1813
• Burdwan auction: 1797
• Paharias: Rajmahal Hills
• Paharia cultivation: Shifting cultivation
• Paharia tool: Hoe
• Santhal territory: Damin-i-Koh
• Damin-i-Koh demarcated: 1832
• Santhal Revolt: 1855–56
• Santhal leader: Sidhu Manjhi
• Santhal term for outsiders: Dikus
• Deccan Revolt: 1875
• Main target of Deccan ryots: Moneylenders/sahukars
• American Civil War: 1861–65
• Cotton boom: 1861 onwards
• Deccan Riots Commission Report: 1878
• Buchanan: British surveyor/observer whose accounts are important but need critical reading.

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Chapter in One Flow

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2-Minute Final Revision

Bengal: Permanent Settlement → Zamindars → High revenue → Defaults → Auctions → Jotedars rise.

Rajmahal: Paharias → Forest + Hoe + Shifting cultivation.

Santhals: Plough + Settled agriculture → Damin-i-Koh → Taxes + Dikus + Zamindars → Santhal Revolt.

Deccan: Ryotwari → High revenue → Debt → Cotton boom → American Civil War → Cotton collapse → Credit dries up → Deccan Riots.

Sources: Fifth Report + Buchanan’s accounts + petitions + bonds + official reports.

Historical method: Read official sources critically and compare them with other evidence.