5. Stupas: Symbols of Buddhism (Pages 94–100)

Introduction

Among the most important monuments associated with Buddhism are Stupas. Originally built as burial mounds containing the relics of the Buddha and other revered monks, stupas gradually became major centres of worship and pilgrimage. Over time they also developed into remarkable examples of Indian architecture and sculpture.

The NCERT explains that stupas preserve valuable evidence regarding religion, patronage, architecture, art and society.

(Page 94)

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Origin of the Stupa

The word:

Stupa

literally means:

“Heap” or “Mound.”

Originally, stupas were earthen burial mounds. After the Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana, his relics were divided among several groups and enshrined in stupas.

(Page 94)

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Why Were Stupas Built?

Stupas were constructed:

• To preserve relics.
• To honour the Buddha.
• To commemorate important events.
• To encourage pilgrimage.
• To spread Buddhist teachings.

Later, stupas were also built in memory of:

• Bodhisattvas
• Monks
• Teachers

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Ashoka and Stupas

According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka:

• Opened earlier stupas.
• Redistributed the relics.
• Built numerous new stupas across his empire.

Although the exact number is uncertain, Ashoka is closely associated with the spread of Buddhist monuments.

(Page 94)

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Structure of a Stupa

(Pages 94–95)

A typical stupa consisted of several architectural elements:

(Page 95)

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Worship at Stupas

Unlike temples, stupas generally contained no large image of the Buddha during the early period. Instead, devotees worshipped by:

• Circumambulation (Pradakshina)
• Offering flowers
• Lighting lamps
• Meditation

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Sanchi Stupa

(Pages 95–97)

Construction

The earliest stupa at Sanchi was built during Ashoka’s reign and later enlarged during the:

• Shunga period
• Satavahana period

Four Gateways (Toranas)

The Great Stupa possesses four beautifully carved gateways facing East, West, North and South. Each gateway contains detailed sculptural panels.

(Page 95)

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Sculptures at Sanchi

The carvings depict Jataka stories, worshippers, animals, trees, Yakshas, Yakshis, festivals and pilgrims. These sculptures provide valuable evidence regarding contemporary society.

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Donor Inscriptions

(Page 96)

Hundreds of inscriptions record donations made by:

• Merchants, Monks and Nuns
• Craftsmen and Guilds
• Ordinary men and women

This demonstrates that Buddhist monuments were supported by society as a whole.

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Symbols Used Instead of Buddha Images

(Page 97)

Early Buddhist artists avoided representing the Buddha in human form. Instead they used symbols such as an empty throne, Bodhi tree, wheel (Dharmachakra), footprints and the stupa. These are known as:

Aniconic Representations

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Jataka Stories

The gateways illustrate numerous:

Jataka Tales

These narrate the Buddha’s previous births and teach values such as compassion, charity, honesty, sacrifice and wisdom.

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Shalabhanjika

(Page 97)

One famous sculpture at Sanchi depicts:

Shalabhanjika

A graceful woman standing beneath a tree. She symbolises fertility, prosperity and nature. Although originally associated with folk traditions, such figures became part of Buddhist art.

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Gajalakshmi

Another popular motif depicts:

Gajalakshmi

The goddess Lakshmi being bathed by elephants. It symbolises wealth, good fortune and fertility, demonstrating interaction between Buddhist and Brahmanical artistic traditions.

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Amaravati Stupa

(Pages 98–100)

Location

Amaravati is located in present-day Andhra Pradesh.

Importance

The Amaravati Stupa became one of the greatest centres of Buddhist art. Its sculptures are known for fine workmanship, narrative panels, dynamic movement and detailed ornamentation.

(Page 98)

Discovery

Large numbers of sculptures were removed during the colonial period. Today, many are preserved in the Government Museum (Chennai) and the British Museum (London).

Amaravati School of Art

Characteristics include:

• White limestone sculptures.
• Elaborate carvings.
• Graceful human figures.
• Narrative storytelling.

6. New Religious Traditions (Pages 100–108)

Mahayana Buddhism

(Page 100)

Around the beginning of the Common Era, a new tradition developed known as Mahayana Buddhism.

Features

Mahayana Buddhism emphasized Bodhisattvas, compassion, the salvation of all beings and image worship.

Bodhisattva

A Bodhisattva is a person who has attained enlightenment but postpones Nirvana in order to help others achieve liberation.

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Buddha Images

Unlike early Buddhism, Mahayana encouraged the construction of Buddha statues and Bodhisattva images. These became important objects of worship.

(Page 101)

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Development of Brahmanical Traditions

The chapter explains that Brahmanical religion also underwent major changes. Important developments included the rise of Puranas, temple worship, Bhakti traditions and image worship.

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Vaishnavism

(Pages 102–103)

Principal Deity

Vishnu became one of the most important deities.

Avatars

Vishnu was believed to descend to earth in different forms known as Avatars. Important avatars include:

Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Rama and Krishna.

(Page 102)

Bhakti

Vaishnavism emphasized devotion, faith and a personal relationship with God rather than elaborate sacrifices.

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Shaivism

(Pages 103–104)

Principal Deity

Shiva was worshipped in many forms. Common representations include the Linga, Nataraja and Mahayogi.

Features

Shaivism emphasized meditation, asceticism, devotion and cosmic power.

(Page 103)

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Puranas

The Puranas contain myths, genealogies, legends and religious teachings. They played an important role in spreading Brahmanical traditions among ordinary people.

7. Temples and Architecture (Pages 104–111)

Growth of Temple Worship

Permanent stone temples gradually replaced earlier wooden structures. They became centres of worship, education, social gatherings and economic activity.

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Basic Parts of a Temple

(Page 104)

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Rock-cut Architecture

Important examples include Ajanta, Ellora, Karle and Bhaja. These monuments were carved directly into living rock.

Cave Monasteries

Rock-cut caves provided residences for monks (Viharas) and prayer halls (Chaityas).

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Kailashnatha Temple

Although constructed slightly later, the chapter mentions rock-cut temples as outstanding examples of Indian engineering and artistic achievement.

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Historians and Temple Architecture

Archaeologists study temples to understand religion, society, patronage, political authority, art and technology. Architecture therefore serves as an important historical source.

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Exam Resources

Important Topics

The following topics are frequently asked in UPSC, SSC, PSC, Railway, CUET and Board examinations.

Important Topic	Pages
Sanchi Stupa	82–97
Great Stupa Architecture	94–95
Stupa Components	94–95
Donor Inscriptions	96
Aniconic Symbols	97
Jataka Stories	97
Shalabhanjika	97
Gajalakshmi	97
Amaravati Stupa	98–100
Mahayana Buddhism	100–101
Bodhisattvas	100
Buddha Images	101
Vaishnavism	102–103
Avatars of Vishnu	102
Shaivism	103–104
Puranas	103
Temple Architecture	104–111
Garbhagriha	104
Mandapa	104
Shikhara	104
Rock-cut Architecture	105–111

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Important Terms / Concepts

Term	Meaning
Stupa	Buddhist monument containing relics
Anda	Hemispherical dome of a stupa
Harmika	Square railing above the dome
Chhatra	Umbrella symbolising spiritual authority
Vedika	Stone railing around a stupa
Pradakshina	Clockwise circumambulation
Torana	Ornamental gateway
Jataka	Stories of Buddha’s previous births
Bodhisattva	Enlightened being who postpones Nirvana to help others
Mahayana	Buddhist tradition emphasising Bodhisattvas and image worship
Garbhagriha	Inner sanctum of a temple
Mandapa	Pillared hall of a temple
Shikhara	Tower above the sanctum
Chaitya	Buddhist prayer hall
Vihara	Buddhist monastery
Avatara	Incarnation of Vishnu
Linga	Symbolic representation of Shiva
Puranas	Brahmanical religious texts containing myths and legends
Shalabhanjika	Female fertility figure beneath a tree
Gajalakshmi	Lakshmi flanked by elephants

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Important Questions

Very Short Answer Questions

1. What is a stupa?
2. Who enlarged the Sanchi Stupa after Ashoka?
3. What is the Anda?
4. What is a Torana?
5. Define Pradakshina.
6. What are Jataka stories?
7. What is Mahayana Buddhism?
8. Who is a Bodhisattva?
9. What is a Garbhagriha?
10. What is a Mandapa?
11. What is a Shikhara?
12. What is an Avatara?

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the architectural features of a stupa.
2. Why is the Sanchi Stupa historically important?
3. Discuss the significance of donor inscriptions.
4. Explain the symbolism used in early Buddhist art.
5. Describe the Amaravati School of Art.
6. Explain the features of Mahayana Buddhism.
7. Discuss the growth of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
8. Describe the basic structure of an early Hindu temple.
9. Explain the importance of rock-cut architecture.
10. How do temples help historians reconstruct ancient Indian society?

Long Answer Questions

1. Discuss the origin, architecture and significance of Buddhist stupas.
2. Explain the artistic features of the Sanchi and Amaravati stupas.
3. Analyse the emergence and development of Mahayana Buddhism.
4. Discuss the rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism during the early centuries CE.
5. Explain the evolution of temple architecture in ancient India.
6. Analyse the importance of architecture, sculpture and inscriptions as historical sources.
7. Discuss the role of donors and patronage in the construction of Buddhist monuments.
8. Explain how religious ideas influenced architecture and sculpture between 600 BCE and 600 CE.

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FAQs

These FAQs help students revise important concepts quickly.

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Quick Revision Summary

These quick revision notes help in last-minute preparation.

• Stupas originated as burial mounds containing sacred relics.
• Ashoka played a major role in promoting stupa construction.
• The main parts of a stupa are Anda, Harmika, Chhatra, Vedika and Pradakshina Patha.
• Devotees worshipped by circumambulating the stupa clockwise.
• The Great Stupa at Sanchi was first built during Ashoka’s reign.
• Sanchi’s four Toranas contain detailed narrative sculptures.
• Early Buddhist art represented the Buddha through symbols rather than human images.
• Common symbols included the Bodhi Tree, Wheel, Empty Throne and Footprints.
• Jataka stories illustrate the Buddha’s previous births.
• Shalabhanjika represents fertility and prosperity.
• Gajalakshmi reflects the interaction of Buddhist and Brahmanical artistic traditions.
• Amaravati became an important centre of Buddhist sculpture.
• Mahayana Buddhism promoted the Bodhisattva ideal and image worship.
• Bodhisattvas postpone Nirvana to help all living beings.
• Vaishnavism centred on devotion to Vishnu and his avatars.
• Shaivism developed around the worship of Shiva in forms such as the Linga.
• The Puranas popularised Brahmanical traditions.
• Early temples consisted of a Garbhagriha, Mandapa and Shikhara.
• Rock-cut Chaityas and Viharas served as prayer halls and monasteries.
• Architecture, sculpture and inscriptions are invaluable sources for reconstructing ancient Indian religious and social history.